Digital Version As the world races to address the escalating climate crisis, the need for innovative solutions and bold leadership has never been more urgent. Simon Michaux, Associate Professor at the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK), is one such leader, offering a unique perspective on the challenges and opportunities of the green transition. With a background in mining and a deep understanding of industrial systems, Michaux’s work focuses on diagnosing the bottlenecks in our current strategies and proposing unconventional solutions to create a sustainable future. In this interview, he shares his insights on the complexities of the energy transition, the role of critical minerals, and the transformative potential of circular economies. Our relationship with the environment must change. We must become aware of what energy is, where we get it from, and what raw materials mean for us. A Journey from Mining to Climate Action Simon Michaux’s journey into climate action began in the Australian mining industry, where he gained firsthand experience in resource extraction and industrial systems. However, his move to Europe in 2015 marked a turning point. “I came to Europe to learn about industrial recycling and the circular economy,” he recalls. Attending EU policy meetings and strategy workshops, Michaux quickly realized a disconnect between the proposed strategies and the realities of energy and resource systems. “The perception was that Europe led the world in phasing out fossil fuels and the green transition,” he says. “But the strategies I heard were not connected to reality at all.” This realization sparked a years-long effort to understand and communicate the systemic challenges of transitioning away from fossil fuels. Today, his work at GTK focuses on grounding the green transition in reality, diagnosing its flaws, and proposing alternative pathways. The Challenges of Securing Sustainable Raw Materials One of the most pressing challenges in the shift to renewable energy is securing sustainable raw materials. Michaux highlights the complexity of this task, noting that the industrial systems built over the past two centuries rely heavily on fossil fuels. “The last two centuries have been spent building the most complex technological industrial system the world has ever seen, using the most calorifically dense energy source the world has ever known—oil,” he explains. The green transition, while essential, faces significant bottlenecks in resource supply. Michaux emphasizes that the current approach may be leading us into a strategic dead end. “If we’re going in the wrong direction because we’ve forgotten what energy really is and where raw materials actually come from, what should we do?” he asks. His work seeks to answer this question by mapping out the physical units and resources required for a sustainable transition, revealing the logistical challenges and inherent weaknesses of current systems. The green transition operates on a much larger scale compared to the circular economy. Balancing Resource Demand and Environmental Protection The demand for critical minerals, essential for renewable energy technologies, poses a significant challenge to environmental sustainability. Michaux argues that our current approach is ecologically disastrous and faces serious resource bottlenecks. “Our current Plan B, the green transition, faces very serious bottlenecks in resource supply,” he says. “We must fundamentally reconsider our technology choices and how we utilize them.” To address these challenges, Michaux advocates for unconventional solutions, such as thorium-fueled modular molten salt reactors (MSRs). “I’ve been modeling these systems, and the results are amazing,” he shares. “It’s possible to deliver concentrated quantities of electrical power and industrial thermal heat from a very small value chain footprint.” However, he cautions that technological innovation alone is not enough. Society must also shift its priorities, moving away from consumerism and toward community and planetary stewardship. The Role of Circular Economies in Sustainability While the circular economy is often discussed alongside the green transition, Michaux points out that the two are not the same. “The green transition is orders of magnitude larger than the circular economy,” he explains. In a case study conducted in Hawaii, Michaux modeled both scenarios and found that the infrastructure required for the green transition far exceeds that needed for a fully implemented circular economy. Despite this, Michaux believes that a circular economy is essential for long-term stability in a post-fossil-fuel world. However, he argues that the current concept of the circular economy is thermodynamically imbalanced and needs to evolve. “In my work, I’ve tried to achieve this, creating what I call the Resource Balanced Economy (RBE),” he says. This approach integrates energy considerations into every action, ensuring a more sustainable and efficient use of resources. Collaboration for a Sustainable Future Michaux emphasizes the importance of collaboration between governments, businesses, and scientific institutions in addressing the climate crisis. “We must withdraw from the natural environment, contract our human systems footprint, and simplify our industrial system,” he says. He calls for a new form of social collaboration, warning that a scarcity mindset and conflict will only exacerbate the challenges we face. For industries pledging to reduce their carbon footprint, Michaux advises moving beyond regulatory compliance. “Many of the systems we rely on now must be replaced entirely,” he says. “This requires a full metamorphosis of our industrial energy system, which is yet to be understood by most people in positions of responsibility.” We must withdraw from the natural environment, contract our human systems footprint, and simplify our industrial system. Urgent Priorities and Breakthrough Solutions Looking ahead, Michaux identifies the evolution of societal paradigms as the most urgent priority. “Our relationship with the environment must change,” he says. “We must become aware of what energy is, where we get it from, and what raw materials mean for us.” He believes that breakthrough solutions, such as thorium MSRs, can play a key role in this transition, but only if accompanied by a fundamental shift in how we view and organize our systems. For the next generation of scientists, policymakers, and industry leaders, Michaux offers a clear message: “Engage critical thinking in all its forms. Collaborate with as many people as possible. Explore all rabbit holes, and don’t be limited by being

Digital Version As the world faces the intertwined crises of climate change and biodiversity loss, the urgency for innovative strategies and collaborative efforts has never been greater. Guy Midgley, the Director of the School for Climate Studies at Stellenbosch University, is leading the charge in addressing this global challenge. With over thirty years of experience in biodiversity conservation and climate resilience, Midgley offers a distinctive viewpoint. In this exclusive interview, he discusses his journey, the critical challenges we face today, and the transformative strategies that could pave the way for a more sustainable future.  Climate resilience links strongly to the evolutionary history of species, and the climate history of the ecosystems in which they function. A Lifelong Passion for Climate and Biodiversity Guy Midgley’s path into climate resilience and biodiversity conservation began with a childhood spent exploring the diverse ecosystems of southern Africa. “I was fortunate to grow up in the challenging 1960s and 70s, surrounded by the marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems of southern Africa,” he reflects. His parents’ enthusiasm for nature opened his eyes to the region’s rich biodiversity, showcasing its varied landscapes and unique plant and animal life. This early exposure ignited a curiosity about the natural world and its complex relationships with climate. A turning point occurred in his mid-teens when he came across a 1976 National Geographic article discussing long-term climate change. “The article fascinated me with its exploration of how climatic trends might develop, especially since it concluded with a question mark over whether the world was warming or cooling,” he shares. This initial encounter with the idea of climate variability and uncertainty kindled a passion for understanding climatic changes, and led to his decision to link climate change with his developing career in biodiversity science. We are busy warming the world out of a 2.6 million-year-old ice age. Shaping Sustainable Biodiversity Strategies Midgley’s research at Stellenbosch University’s School for Climate Studies has created an opportunity to delve more deeply into the connection between climate resilience and biodiversity conservation. He highlights the significance of grasping the evolutionary history of species alongside the climate history of ecosystems as a basis for effective biodiversity strategies. “Climate resilience is closely tied to the evolutionary history of species and the climate history of the ecosystems they inhabit,” he notes. Nevertheless, he warns against oversimplifying the link between biodiversity and ecological resilience. “While many believe that greater biodiversity naturally fosters greater ecological resilience, I suspect this is an overly simplistic view,” he states. Midgley points out the resilience found in low-diversity ecosystems and the thriving nature of invasive species as indications that the role of biodiversity in resilience is far more complex than commonly thought. “The joint examination of invasive species and climate change appears to me to be a powerful context for uncovering new challenges to what have become relatively established beliefs,” he adds. Addressing Pressing Climate-Related Challenges One of the most urgent issues we face today is the rapid change in global biodiversity driven by climate change. “We are busy warming the world out of a 2.6 million-year-old ice age,” Midgley points out. He emphasizes the fragility of ecosystems that rely on colder glacial climates and low CO₂ levels, such as coral reefs and species like penguins and polar bears, which may thus serve as early warning signs of climate impacts. “If we can protect them, these species will be crucial for future generations, especially when the world may eventually cool again,” he explains. Modern humanity itself depends on the kind of climate stability associated with a cooler, less energetic climate system, especially because the food production system is dependent on predictable climates and established geographic climate zones associated with agriculture. Midgley’s research is centered on highlighting how nature conservation strategies could take into account so-called “overshoot” climate scenarios, where temperatures rise towards and even above globally agreed targets before stabilizing and falling again, over what might be decades or longer. “What implications does this have for prioritizing conservation investments, particularly in terms of fairness for future generations?” he questions. This proactive perspective highlights the importance of long-term planning and investment in biodiversity conservation, and of attempting to energise the development of concrete adaptation planning to deal with a better defined future climate trajectory. Innovative Strategies for Climate Resilience At Stellenbosch University, Midgley is spearheading several innovative research projects aimed at boosting climate resilience. A primary focus will be to assess scenarios that simulate climate “overshoot” and its effects on adaptation planning. “If we are to overshoot, it will be essential to start simulating a more manageable set of scenarios,” he explains. This method facilitates more effective planning and decision-making amid climate uncertainty. Another groundbreaking initiative involves investigating the relationship between invasive species and climate change. “The potentially harmful interaction between these two major global change factors is wildly under-appreciated,” Midgley notes. By examining these dynamics, he seeks to formulate strategies that reduce the threats posed by invasive species in a changing climate. Midgley is also pushing for the establishment of integrated assessment modeling capabilities in southern Africa to assess new initiatives that will help to minimize the extent and duration of overshoot scenarios. These include the impacts of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) initiatives, that may have very significant implications at the landscape and seascape levels. “Southern Africa currently lacks the integrated assessment tools necessary to make informed political decisions regarding the value and risks of CDR initiatives that may affect the region,” he states. This effort is vital for ensuring that local contexts are taken into account in global climate solutions. Big data, AI, and technology-assisted synthesis and analysis are very likely to be game-changing. Collaboration for Meaningful Change Midgley highlights the critical role of collaboration among policymakers, businesses, and academic institutions in fostering meaningful change. He states, “By actively listening and learning from each sector, engaging with the outcomes projected by integrated assessment models, and working together to implement, monitor, and evaluate the effectiveness of the suggested responses,” this collaborative effort is vital for tackling the